วันจันทร์ที่ 12 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2559
วันพุธที่ 7 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2559
Sex Drive
Sex Drive is a person's overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. Sex drive is influenced by biological, psychological and social factors. Biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the nucleus accumbens (primarily testosterone and dopamine, respectively) regulate libido in humans.
Social factors, such as work and family, and internal psychological factors, like personality and stress, can affect libido. Sex drive can also be affected by medical conditions, medications, lifestyle and relationship issues, and age (e.g., puberty). A person who has extremely frequent or a suddenly increased sex drive may be experiencing hypersexuality, while the opposite condition is hyposexuality.
A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons refrain from acting on the urge. Psychologically, a person's urge can be repressed or sublimated. On the other hand, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, and others.
Sexual desires are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in humans. A lack or loss of sexual desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in the sexual desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved, may cause problems in the relationship. The infidelity of a partner may be an indication that a partner's changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship. Problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences.
A person is sex starved or sexually frustrated when they have a libido but cannot satisfy it due to a lack of outlet or companion to release their sexual tension.
Sex differences
In early life, usually just before puberty, males are said to be quite flexible regarding their “preferred sexual incentive”,although they later become inflexible. Females on the other hand remain flexible throughout their life cycle. This change in sexuality due to sensitivity to variations in situational, cultural, and social factors is called erotic plasticity.
Otherwise, we know very little about the feelings of sexual desire and sexual arousal in prepubertal children or whether any feelings they may have can be comparable to what they would experience later on in life as an adult.
However, we do know that boys typically experience and commence sexual interest and activity before girls do.Men, on average, have significantly higher sex drives and desire for sexual activity than women do; this also correlated with the finding that men report, on average, a larger total number of lifetime sexual partners,although mathematicians say "it is logically impossible for heterosexual men to have more partners on average than heterosexual women".
Sex drive was also related to sociosexuality scores, where the higher the sex drive the less restricted the sociosexual orientation, or the willingness to have sex outside of a committed relationship. This was especially the case for women. Lippa utilized data from a BBC internet survey to examine cross-cultural patterns in sex differences for three traits: sex drive, sociosexuality, and height. These three traits all showed consistent sex differences across nations, although women were found to be more variable than men in their sex drive.
On average, male sexual desire remains stronger, more frequent, and longer into the life cycle than women’s.Though women do not experience sexual desire as often as men, when they do, the intensity of the experience is equal to that of men.Societal perceptions of men and women in addition to perceptions about acceptable sexual behaviour (e.g. men are more sexual and sometimes insatiable while women should be more reserved and almost nonsexual) may also contribute to expressed levels of sexual desire and expressed sexual satisfaction.
DeLamater and Sill found that affect and feelings towards the importance of sexual activity can affect levels of desire. In their study, women who said that sexual activity was important to the quality of their lives and relationships demonstrated low desire, while women who placed less emphasis on sexual activity in their lives demonstrated high desire. Men also presented similar results.
These findings were reflected in a Conaglen and Evans study where they assessed whether sexual desire levels influence emotional responses and cognitive processing of sexual pictorial stimuli. They found that women with lower sexual desire responded to sexual stimuli in the picture recognition task more quickly but rated the sexual images as less arousing and less pleasant than the other desire groups.
It has been found that women can become physically aroused when presented with explicit sexual imagery and stimuli without experiencing psychological desire or arousal.This led to 97% of women in a study reporting that they have had sexual intercourse without experiencing sexual desire while only 60% of the men reported the same thing.
Also, women may form a more significant association between sexual desire and attachment than men.Women may be more prone to desire fluctuation due to the many phases and biological changes the woman’s body endures through a life cycle: menstrual cycle, pregnancy, lactation, menopause, and fatigue.
Though these changes are usually very small, women seem to have increased levels of sexual desire during ovulation while during menstruation they experience a decreased level of sexual desire.
In women, an abrupt decline in androgen production can cause cessation of sexual thoughts and the failure to respond to sexual cues and triggers which previously would elicit sexual desire. This is seen especially in postmenopausal women who have low levels of testosterone. Doses of testosterone given to women transdermally have been found to improve levels of sexual desire and sexual functioning.
Older individuals are less likely to declare themselves as being at the extremes of the sexual desire spectrum. By the time that individuals reach middle and old age there is a natural decline in sexual desire, sexual capacity, and the frequency of sexual behaviour.DeLamater and Sill found that the majority of men and women do not officially report themselves as having low levels of sexual desire until they are 75 years old.
Many would attribute this lull to partner familiarity, alienation, or preoccupation with other non-sexual matters such as social, relational, and health concerns.
Sexual desire
Sexual desire is a motivational state and an interest in “sexual objects or activities, or as a wish, need, or drive to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activities”.Synonyms for sexual desire are libido, sexual attraction, and lust.
Sexual desire is an aspect of a person's sexuality, which varies significantly from one person to another, and also varies depending on circumstances at a particular time.
Sexual desire may be the “single most common sexual event in the lives of men and women”. Sexual desire is a subjective feeling state that can “be triggered by both internal and external cues, and that may or may not result in overt sexual behavior”.
Sexual desire can be aroused through imagination and sexual fantasies, or perceiving an individual who one finds attractive. Sexual desire is also created and amplified through sexual tension, which is caused by sexual desire that has yet to be consummated.
Sexual desire can be spontaneous or responsive. Sexual desire is dynamic, can either be positive or negative, and can vary in intensity depending on the desired object/person. The sexual desire spectrum is described by Stephen B. Levine as: aversion --> disinclination --> indifference --> interest --> need --> passion.
The production and use of sexual fantasy and thought is an important part of properly functioning sexual desire. Some physical manifestations of sexual desire in humans are; licking, sucking, puckering, and touching the lips, as well as tongue protrusion.
Theoretical perspectives
Theorists and researchers have usually employed two different frameworks in their understanding of human sexual desire. The first is a biological framework where sexual desire comes from an innate motivational force like “an instinct, drive, need, urge, wish, or want”.
Also known as sex drive. Second, a socio-cultural theory where desire is conceptualized as one factor in a much larger context (i.e. relationships nested within societies, nested within cultures).
In the biological approach, sexual drive is likened to other biological drives such as hunger, where an individual will seek out food, or in the case of desire – pleasure, in order to reduce or avoid pain.[8] Sex drive can be thought of as a biological need or craving that inspires individuals to seek out and become receptive to sexual experiences and sexual pleasure.
However, members of all species (including humans) will not seek to engage in sexual activity with any conspecific, since attraction plays a large role in sexual desire. Incentive motivation theory exists under this framework. This theory states that the strength of motivation towards sexual activity depends on the strength of the stimuli (immediacy of stimuli), and if satiety is achieved, the strength of the stimuli/incentive will be increased in the future.
Sex drive is strongly tied to biological factors such as “chromosomal and hormonal status, nutritional status, age, and general health”.[ Sexual desire is the first phase of the human sex response cycle. The traditional model for the human sexual response cycle can be represented as: Desire --> Arousal --> Orgasm --> Resolution.
Sexual desire, though a part of the sexual response cycle, is believed to be distinct and separate from genital sexual arousal.It has also been argued that sexual desire is not a distinct phase in sexual response. Rather, it is something that persists through arousal and orgasm and can even persist after orgasm. Although orgasm might make it difficult for a man to maintain his erection or woman continue with vaginal lubrication, sexual desire can persist nevertheless.
Sexual desire, though a part of the sexual response cycle, is believed to be distinct and separate from genital sexual arousal.It has also been argued that sexual desire is not a distinct phase in sexual response. Rather, it is something that persists through arousal and orgasm and can even persist after orgasm. Although orgasm might make it difficult for a man to maintain his erection or woman continue with vaginal lubrication, sexual desire can persist nevertheless.
In the sociocultural framework, sexual desire would indicate a longing for sexual activity for its own sake, not for any other purpose than purely for enjoyment and one’s own satisfaction or to release some sexual tension.
Sexual desire and activity could also be produced to help achieve some other means or to gain some other rewards that may not be sexual in origin, like increased closeness and attachment between partners. Sexual desire is not an urge; this may imply that individuals have more of a conscious control of their own desire. That being said, sociocultural influences may push males and females into gender-specific roles where the use of social scripts dictating the appropriate feelings and responses to sexual desire and activity are expected.
This may lead to conflict where an individual’s wants may be unfulfilled due to the anticipated social consequences of their actions, causing frustration. Some theorists suggest that the experience of sexual desire may be socially constructed. However, some argue that although sociocultural factors are very influential over the experience of sexual desire, they don’t play a large role until after biological initially influences desire.
Another view is that sexual desire is neither a social construction[14] nor a biological drive. According to James Giles, it is rather an existential need that is based on the sense of incompleteness that arises from the experience of being gendered.
Sexual desire and activity could also be produced to help achieve some other means or to gain some other rewards that may not be sexual in origin, like increased closeness and attachment between partners. Sexual desire is not an urge; this may imply that individuals have more of a conscious control of their own desire. That being said, sociocultural influences may push males and females into gender-specific roles where the use of social scripts dictating the appropriate feelings and responses to sexual desire and activity are expected.
This may lead to conflict where an individual’s wants may be unfulfilled due to the anticipated social consequences of their actions, causing frustration. Some theorists suggest that the experience of sexual desire may be socially constructed. However, some argue that although sociocultural factors are very influential over the experience of sexual desire, they don’t play a large role until after biological initially influences desire.
Another view is that sexual desire is neither a social construction[14] nor a biological drive. According to James Giles, it is rather an existential need that is based on the sense of incompleteness that arises from the experience of being gendered.
There are many researchers who believe that stressing any single approach to the study of human sexuality and excluding others is not logical and counterproductive.
It is the integrations of and interaction between multiple approaches and disciplines that will allow us the most comprehensive understanding of human sexuality from all angles. One single approach may provide necessary factors for studying desire, but it is not sufficient. Sexual desire can manifest itself in more than one way; it is a “variety of different behaviors, cognitions, and emotions, taken together”.
Levine suggests that sexual desire has three components which link several different theoretical perspectives together:
1.Drive – The biological component. This includes anatomy and neuroendocrine physiology.
2.Motivation – The psychological component. This includes the influences of personal mental states (mood), interpersonal states (e.g. mutual affection, disagreement), and social context (e.g. relationship status).
3.Wish – The cultural component. This considers cultural ideals, values, and rules about sexual expression which are external to the individual.
It is the integrations of and interaction between multiple approaches and disciplines that will allow us the most comprehensive understanding of human sexuality from all angles. One single approach may provide necessary factors for studying desire, but it is not sufficient. Sexual desire can manifest itself in more than one way; it is a “variety of different behaviors, cognitions, and emotions, taken together”.
Levine suggests that sexual desire has three components which link several different theoretical perspectives together:
1.Drive – The biological component. This includes anatomy and neuroendocrine physiology.
2.Motivation – The psychological component. This includes the influences of personal mental states (mood), interpersonal states (e.g. mutual affection, disagreement), and social context (e.g. relationship status).
3.Wish – The cultural component. This considers cultural ideals, values, and rules about sexual expression which are external to the individual.
วันจันทร์ที่ 5 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2559
Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. These attractions are generally subsumed under heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality, while asexuality (the lack of sexual attraction to others) is sometimes identified as the fourth category.
These categories are aspects of the more nuanced nature of sexual identity and terminology. For example, people may use other labels, such as pansexual or polysexual, or none at all.According to the American Psychological Association, sexual orientation "also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions.
Androphilia and gynephilia are terms used in behavioral science to describe sexual orientation as an alternative to a gender binary conceptualization. Androphilia describes sexual attraction to masculinity; gynephilia describes the sexual attraction to femininity.
The term sexual preference largely overlaps with sexual orientation, but is generally distinguished in psychological research. A person who identifies as bisexual, for example, may sexually prefer one sex over the other. Sexual preference may also suggest a degree of voluntary choice, whereas the scientific consensus is that sexual orientation is not a choice.
Scientists do not know the exact causes of sexual orientation, but they believe that it is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences.They favor biologically-based theories, which point to genetic factors, the early uterine environment, both, or the inclusion of genetic and social factors.There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role when it comes to sexual orientation.
Research over several decades has demonstrated that sexual orientation ranges along a continuum, from exclusive attraction to the opposite sex to exclusive attraction to the same sex.
Sexual orientation is reported primarily within biology and psychology (including sexology), but it is also a subject area in anthropology, history (including social constructionism), and law, and there are other explanations that relate to sexual orientation and culture.
Eroticism
Eroticism is a quality that causes sexual feelings, as well as a philosophical contemplation concerning the aesthetics of sexual desire, sensuality and romantic love.
That quality may be found in any form of artwork, including painting, sculpture, photography, drama, film, music or literature. It may also be found in advertising. The term may also refer to a state of sexual arousal or anticipation of such – an insistent sexual impulse, desire, or pattern of thoughts.
As French novelist Honoré de Balzac stated, eroticism is dependent not just upon an individual's sexual morality, but also the culture and time in which an individual resides.
Because the nature of what is erotic is fluid, early definitions of the term attempted to conceive eroticism as some form of sensual or romantic love or as the human sex drive (libido); for example, the Encyclopédie of 1755 states that the erotic "is an epithet which is applied to everything with a connection to the love of the sexes; one employs it particularly to characterize...a dissoluteness, an excess".
However, because eroticism is wholly dependent on the viewer's culture and personal tastes pertaining to what, exactly, defines the erotic,critics have often confused eroticism with pornography, Andrea Dworkin going so far as to say: "[Eroticism] is simply high-class pornography; better produced, better conceived, better executed, better packaged, designed for a better class of consumer."
This confusion, as Lynn Hunt writes, "demonstrate the difficulty of drawing...a clear generic demarcation between the erotic and the pornographic": indeed arguably "the history of the separation of pornography from eroticism...remains to be written".
Whereas traditionally eroticism has been dealt with in relation to culture and its pornographic outcomes, current evolutionary psychology shows how eroticism has shaped the evolution of human nature.
Eroticism is defined as the way humans transform sexuality into a mental activity that results in pleasure for its own sake.
The ability to envision sexual arousal as a medium of introspection about feelings and thoughts that transcends mere procreative animal sexuality seems unique to humans. It is thus that the transformation of the sexual impulse into erotic creativity can be considered a central factor in the process of human mental evolution.
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